Enzyme Activity As A Function Of Substrate Concentration Biology Essay

Enzyme Activity As A Function Of Substrate Concentration Biology Essay The effect of concentration on enzyme activity. It can be noted that both enzyme solution used had different results. Enzyme activity was greater when using the chicken liver rather than the cow liver. Generally the enzyme activity increases as the drops of the enzyme (concentration) increases. There was a significant increase when six drops of enzyme solution (chicken liver) was added. The height of the bubble rose to 4 cm. there was a steady increase between when 9-12 drops solution was added. A sharp increase occurred when 15 drops of enzyme solution was added. The height was recorded as 7.5 cm. There was no significant increase onwards When enzyme solution (cows liver) was added there was no significant increase in the first set of drops. The height was recorded to be 3.5 cm when 3 drops of enzyme solution was added. There was an increase from 3.5 to 4cm when 6 drops of solution was added. There were no further significant increases un adding the enzyme solution. Graph 2 shows the effect of temperature on enzyme activity. For this experiment an enzyme solution of cow liver was used. There was an increase in bubble height when the solution was placed at 25 C. There was a further increase in the height when the solution was placed at 50 C. The height was recorded as 4.2 cm. However at 70 C, there was no change. There was no evidence of bubbles suggesting that the enzyme had been denatured. EXPLANATION Generally enzyme activity increases with increasing temperature. However in this experiment there was an increase then a sudden drop in enzymatic activity. Enzymes require certain conditions to be effective in their functioning. Some require certain temperatures to function. A reason behind the denaturing of the enzyme at 70 C is that the temperature was too high for the enzyme to function and it denatured due to this. Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity Knowledge of basic enzyme kinetic theory is important in enzyme analysis in order both to understand the basic enzymatic mechanism and to select a method for enzyme analysis. The conditions selected to measure the activity of an enzyme would not be the same as those selected to measure the concentration of its substrate. Several factors affect the rate at which enzymatic reactions proceed temperature, pH, enzyme concentration, substrate concentration, and the presence of any inhibitors or activators. Temperature Effects http://www.worthington-biochem.com/IntroBiochem/images/ie21.gif Like most chemical reactions, the rate of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction increases as the temperature is raised. A ten degree Centigrade rise in temperature will increase the activity of most enzymes by 50 to 100%. Variations in reaction temperature as small as 1 or 2 degrees may introduce changes of 10 to 20% in the results. In the case of enzymatic reactions, this is complicated by the fact that many enzymes are adversely affected by high temperatures. As shown in Figure 13, the reaction rate increases with temperature to a maximum level, then abruptly declines with further increase of temperature. Because most animal enzymes rapidly become denatured at temperatures above 40Â °C, most enzyme determinations are carried out somewhat below that temperature. Over a period of time, enzymes will be deactivated at even moderate temperatures. Storage of enzymes at 5Â °C or below is generally the most suitable. Some enzymes lose their activity when frozen. Effects of pH Enzymes are affected by changes in pH. The most favorable pH value the point where the enzyme is most active is known as the optimum pH. This is graphically illustrated in Figure 14. http://www.worthington-biochem.com/IntroBiochem/images/ie22.gif Extremely high or low pH values generally result in complete loss of activity for most enzymes. pH is also a factor in the stability of enzymes. As with activity, for each enzyme there is also a region of pH optimal stability. The optimum pH value will vary greatly from one enzyme to another Enzyme Concentration In order to study the effect of increasing the enzyme concentration upon the reaction rate, the substrate must be present in an excess amount; i.e., the reaction must be independent of the substrate concentration. Any change in the amount of product formed over a specified period of time will be dependent upon the level of enzyme present. Graphically this can be represented as: http://www.worthington-biochem.com/IntroBiochem/images/ie09.gif These reactions are said to be zero order because the rates are independent of substrate concentration, and are equal to some constant k. The formation of product proceeds at a rate which is linear with time. The addition of more substrate does not serve to increase the rate. In zero order kinetics, allowing the assay to run for double time results in double the amount of product. The amount of enzyme present in a reaction is measured by the activity it catalyzes. The relationship between activity and concentration is affected by many factors such as temperature, pH, etc. An enzyme assay must be designed so that the observed activity is proportional to the amount of enzyme present in order that the enzyme concentration is the only limiting factor. It is satisfied only when the reaction is zero order. Enzyme activity is generally greatest when substrate concentration is unlimiting. Effects of Inhibitors on Enzyme Activity Enzyme inhibitors are substances which alter the catalytic action of the enzyme and consequently slow down, or in some cases, stop catalysis. There are three common types of enzyme inhibition competitive, non-competitive and substrate inhibition. Most theories concerning inhibition mechanisms are based on the existence of the enzyme-substrate complex ES. Competitive inhibition occurs when the substrate and a substance resembling the substrate are both added to the enzyme. A theory called the lock-key theory of enzyme catalysts can be used to explain why inhibition occurs. The lock and key theory utilizes the concept of an active site. The concept holds that one particular portion of the enzyme surface has a strong affinity for the substrate. The substrate is held in such a way that its conversion to the reaction products is more favorable. If we consider the enzyme as the lock and the substrate the key the key is inserted in the lock, is turned, and the door is opened and the reaction proceeds. However, when an inhibitor which resembles the substrate is present, it will compete with the substrate for the position in the enzyme lock. When the inhibitor wins, it gains the lock position but is unable to open the lock. Hence, the observed reaction is slowed down because some of the available enzyme sites are occupied by the inhibitor. If a dissimilar substance which does not fit the site is present, the enzyme rejects it, accepts the substrate, and the reaction proceeds normally. ACTIVE SITE This is the part of an enzyme or antibody where the chemical reaction occurs SUBSTRATE In biochemistry, a substrate is a molecule upon which an enzyme acts. Enzymes catalyze chemical reactions involving the substrate(s). In the case of a single substrate, the substrate binds with the enzyme active site, and an enzyme-substrate complex is formed. The substrate is transformed into one or more products, which are then released from the active site ENZYME SUBSTRATE COMPLEX This is when the substrate binds reversibly to the enzyme forming a complex ANABOLISM Anabolism, or biosynthesis, is the process by which living organisms synthesize complex molecules of life from simpler ones. Anabolism, together with catabolism, are the two series of chemical processes in cells that are, together, called metabolism. Anabolic reactions are divergent processes. That is, relatively few types of raw materials are used to synthesize a wide variety of end products. This results in an increase in cellular size or complexity-or both. Anabolic processes produce peptides, proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, and nucleic acids. These molecules comprise all the materials of living cells, such as membranes and chromosomes, as well as the specialized products of specific types of cells, such as enzymes, antibodies, hormones, and neurotransmitters. CATBOLISM Catabolism, the opposite of anabolism, produces smaller molecules used by the cell to synthesize larger molecules, as will be described below. Thus, in contrast to the divergent reactions of anabolism, catabolism is a convergent process, in which many different types of molecules are broken down into relatively few types of end products. ..

Shakespeare :: essays research papers

William Shakespeare   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   William Shakespeare was a great English playwright, dramatist and poet who lived during the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. Shakespeare is considered to be the greatest playwright of all time. No other writer's plays have been produced so many times or read so widely in so many countries as his. Shakespeare was born to middle class parents. His father, John, was a Stratford businessman. He was a glove maker who owned a leather shop. John Shakespeare was a well-known and respected man in the town. He held several important local governmental positions. William Shakespeare's mother was Mary Arden. Though she was the daughter of a local farmer, she was related to a wealthy family. Mary Arden and John Shakespeare were married in 1557. William Shakespeare was born in Stratford in 1564. He was one of eight children. The Shakespeare's were well-respected prominent people. When William Shakespeare was about seven years old, he probably began attending the Stratford Grammar School with other boys of his social class. Students went to school year round attending school for nine hours a day. The teachers were strict disciplinarians. Though Shakespeare spent long hours at school, his boyhood was probably fascinating. Stratford was a lively town and during holidays, it was known to put on pageants and many popular shows. It also held several large fairs during the year. Stratford was an exciting place to live. Stratford also had fields and woods surrounding it giving William the opportunity to hunt and trap small game. The River Avon, which ran through the town, allowed him to fish also. Shakespeare's' poems and plays show his love of nature and rural life which reflects his childhood. On November 28, 1582, Shakespeare married Anne Hathaway of the neighboring village of Shottery. She was twenty-six, and he was only eighteen at the time. They had three children. Susana was their first and then they had twins, Hamnet and Judith. Hamnet, Shakespeare's son, died in 1596. In 1607, his daughter Susana got married. Shakespeare's other daughter, Judith, got married in 1616. In London, Shakespeare's career took off. It is believed that he may have become well known in London theatrical life by 1592. By that time, he had joined one of the city's repertory theater companies. These companies were made up of a permanent cast of actors who presented different plays week after week. The companies were commercial organizations that depended on admission from their audience.

Alice In Credit Card Land :: essays research papers

<a href="http://www.geocities.com/vaksam/">Sam Vaknin's Psychology, Philosophy, Economics and Foreign Affairs Web Sites Your credit card is stolen. You place a phone call to the number provided in your tourist guide or in the local daily press. You provide your details and you cancel your card. You block it. In a few minutes, it should be transferred to the stop-list available to the authorization centres worldwide. From that moment on, no thief will be able to fraudulently use your card. You can sigh in relief. The danger is over. But is it ? It is definitely not. To understand why, we should first review the intricate procedure involved. In principle, the best and safest thing to do is call the authorization centre of the bank that issued your card (the issuer bank). Calling the number published in the media is second best because it connects the cardholder to a â€Å"volunteer† bank, which caters for the needs of all the issuers of a given card. Some service organizations (such as IAPA – the International Air Passengers Association) provide a similar service. The â€Å"catering bank† accepts the call, notes down the details of the cardholder and prepares a fax containing the instruction to cancel the card. The cancellation fax is then sent on to the issuing bank. The details of all the issuing banks are found in special manuals published by the clearing and payments associations of all the banks that issue a specific card. All the financial institutions that issue Mastercards, Eurocards and a few other more minor cards in Europe are members of Europay International (EPI). Here lies the first snag : the catering bank often mistakes the identity of the issuer. Many banks share the same name or are branches of a network. Banks with identical names can exist in Prague, Budapest and Frankfurt, or Vienna, for instance. Should a fax cancelling the card be sent to the wrong bank – the card will simply not be cancelled until it is too late. By the time the mistake is discovered, the card is usually thoroughly abused and the financial means of the cardholder are exhausted. Additionally, going the indirect route (calling an intermediary bank instead of the issuing bank) translates into a delay which could prove monetarily crucial. By the time the fax is sent, it might be no longer necessary. If the card has been abused and fraudulent purchases or money withdrawals have been debited to the unfortunate cardholders’ bank or

Particular social system Essay

Ethics is the discipline that deals with the good and the bad as well as with the moral duty and responsibility of an individual. It can also be defined as the study of the choices made by individuals as regards right and wrong (Marie, 2005). Ethics is mainly concerned with the philosophy that results in a particular behavior. Ethics are of different types, and they differ in terms of their application in different contexts. Ethics state the working of a particular social system. They point towards the utilization of morality. At birth, as indicated by Be The Dream (2009), everyone is practically a blank slate. The period of infancy is characterized by total emptiness. The only skill an infant is equipped with is crying in order to attract the attention of the other people. Infants are contented with just lying watching the world revolve around them until they need something. However, as life progresses, individuals develop values in accordance with what they have previously learned or gone through (Be The Dream, 2009). The main intent of developing ethics is to set up the capacity to come up with rational judgment and ethical decisions. The whole process of personal ethics development is continuous and goes on through out life (Marie, 2005). Personal ethics, morals and values go hand in hand. Values are beneficial aspects learned from childhood, either as a result of interaction with the environment or from parents. Morals are the inherent beliefs that develop from the values system of the way an individual should react in a particular situation (Fairleigh Dickinson University, 2010). Ethics, on the other hand, are characterized by an individual’s reaction to difficult situations. Ethics play a major role of testing the morals of an individual. Personal ethics are instilled by the culture, environment as well as the background in which an individual is brought up (Fairleigh Dickinson University, 2010). Family values in addition to traditional values are very important in the upbringing of a child. These values play a major role in assisting an individual develop personal ethics at a very tender age. Various personal ethics include: honesty, loyalty, punctuality, open-mindedness, self respect as well as respect for others and fairness (Marie, 2005). Hatcher (2007) states that the expression of one’s ethics is not always comprehended in the global context at large, immediate surrounding, or even among the closest family members. This is mainly as a result of the difference in the development of personal ethics. Personal ethics develop early in life through interaction with family, church, school, and other members of the general community. All these people play part in helping one mold his/her beliefs (Hatcher, 2007). Personal ethics are established through unconscious observations as well as experiences of childhood. Personal ethics narrate values that help an individual make sense of his/her life. They enable one to make moral decisions that are not inclined towards the good of an individual but to all people. An ethical person undergoes extensive internal battles, trying to figure out whether his or her actions will negatively impact on others. Personal ethics enable individuals to make decisions that are meant for the benefit of all. They act as an innate factor that enable individuals make rational and morally correct decisions (Hatcher, 2007).

Uk institution culture

Charity business organisation has been an central part in slope civil society by means of four hundred years development. This article alms to introduce two spark advance charities organisations In UK the field religious belief and the royal stag 3ritlsh Legion, and to research how they shape and reflect the UK subtlety. 2. The field of study self-confidence and UK Culture This section introduces the comment of the study impudence and states how it shapes and reflects uK culture trom maven-third aspects. 2. 1 3ackground of the National Trust The National Trust was founded in 1895 as a charity body, independent of the UK government.Its mission is to continue the nation of lands and tenements (including uildings) of beauty or past interest In perpetuity for the wellbeing of society (Lansley, 1996 227). The National Trust has been one of the biggest environmental organizations In the world through hundreds development. It raises money heavily on the backing of its mem bers, visitors, donors and partners. The rank and file fee accounts biggishly in the total amount. The memberships numbers ot the national self-confidence were 7,000 people in 1945, and it increased apace to 220,000 people in 1970.After that, the amount of memberships three-fold every ten years. In 201 1, membership recruitment had reached the number of 3. million (National Trust, 2010/2011 2). also the huge number of memberships, it has a large number of volunteers. As the National Trust motto said No volunteers, No Nauonal Trust. From housing repair to gardens management, customers profit or cultural relics introduce, volunteers play an important role in the National Trust. From a recent statistic, the volunteers numbers have reached 67,000 in the year of 201 1 (National Trust, 201112012 6). 2 The influences of National Trust to UK culture The National Trust has an Influence to UK culture from the following aspects nvironment protection, citizen awareness, and flavor enri chment. Firstly, the huge success of the National Trust In environment conservation shapes the uK culture deeply. The responsibility of Trust mainly reflected in protection of country land, coastline and historical culture relics

Term Paper About Tardiness

School engagement and employment have become the focus of educators over the yesteryear decade as they argon linked to accomplishment and dropout judge. In order to learn, a school-age child has to be both physically and mentally present in the classroom, on a consistent basis, ready to obtain instruction.Students who are in class, on time, and behaving well are more likely to be actively and fruitfully engaged in their own education. Conversely, students who are woful frequently between schools may be slight likely to be engaged in their learning, much like a student who is frequently absent.Additionally, a high rate of mobility at a contingent school can adversely affect all student at that school. Measures of engagement and affaire transform however, research has proven that high rates of absenteeism, tardiness, disciplinal incidents, or mobility signal disruptions in the continuity and prime(prenominal) of a students learning.Moreover, high rates of absenteeism ca n lead to course failure and, eventually, move out of school. The good news for educators is that all of this student information is accessible early and often in the school year, before course performance data is available.As a result, these data are powerful and expedient early indicators for identifying students in need of immediate intervention. In the case of a student who is receiving interventions engagement and participation ms can also provide educators with an important measure of the dosage of the intervention.When viewed together, attendance, tardiness, discipline, mobility, dropout rate and participation metrics jockstrap educators understand the true story of how actively and fruitfully individual students, groups of students, and their parents are engaged in school.

Green Chemistry Essay

Chemo-enzymatic subtraction of optically sublimate rivastigmine intermediate apply alcoholic drink dehydrogenase from bread makers yeast. Authors Madhuresh K. Sethi? , Somashekar R. Bhandya? , Anish Kumar, Nagaraj Maddur, Rohit Shukla,V. S. N. Jayalakshmi Mittapalli publish journal of molecular(a) catalysis B enzymatic 91 (2013) 87 92 news report 2 noninterchangeable deductive reasoning of an enantiomerically fresh rivastigmine intermediate use ketoreductase Authors Madhuresh K. Sethi, Somashekar R.Bhandya, Nagaraj Maddur,RohitShukla, Anish Kumar, V. S. N. Jayalakshmi Mittapalli published Tetrahedron Asymmetry, flock 24, let go of 7,15 April 2013,Pages 374-379 ON avocation devour IN restrictive affairs agreement Intertech Labs, Hyderabad head T. genus Raja Rao * successfully effected lean in medicine regulatory personal business (September 2010 October 2011) * Gained ingest of collect , reviewing & international vitamin Aere file of practiced Dossiers (D MF, EDMF, ANDA) *Performed site regulatory Audits as a secernate of train course of instruction * ICH Guidelines merchandise mandate in Europe(Mutual acquaintance act, alter procedure & angstrom unit decentralized procedure) educational QUALIFICATIONS course of study run for convey University/ card core 2008-10 M. apothecarys shop University establish of pharmaceutic Sciences Panjab University 67% 2004-08 B. drugstore University make of pharmaceutic Sciences Panjab University 64% 2002 10+2 metropolis Montessori School, Lucknow ISC 75% 2000 tenth banal metropolis Montessori School, Lucknow ICSE 82 % academician ACHIEVEMENTS * class-conscious second in M. drugstore in pharma alchemy prick * Scored 93. 99 percentile in door , 2008 * position carrell part , UIPS (2008- 2010) * delegate in CHASCON 2009, IPC 2008 trim curricular ACHIEVEMENTS * achiever Intra section football game duad 2007 * inaugural Runners up , Intra part play check off 2005 * seco nd take to be , Intra subdivision deceiver competitor 2005 figurer advance * run carcass Microsoft XP, view & axerophthol Windows 7. occupation parcel MS Office, MS outdo MS admission charge & adenosine monophosphate PowerPoint. * progress in discussion unhomogeneous reason software package and packages including telling system of pothouse Med, Medline, Sci lookout man and new(prenominal) query chase engines. STRENGTHS * dependable academician preference * Organized, overbearing & angstrom unit constantly smell for ideal in my function HOBBIES * surfboarding the electronic network as a heart and soul for exchanging thoughts and views and with the exact of networking. * ceremonial movies & acting beguiler REFERENCES * On gather up